Human-Environment Interactions
Dikes & Polders in The Netherlands
Main Ideas:
The land of the Netherlands, however, is affected by other variables unrelated to global warming. The sea walls, drainage canals, levees and dikes themselves have impacted the country. River deltas in general tend to subside, or sink, naturally, increasing the impact of a rise in sea level. The Netherlands’ engineering projects also have limited the ability of streams to naturally add new sediments to the deltas.
- Land reclamation along the margins of the shallow sea began more than 2,000 years ago. It is the process of removing water from areas below sea-level in order to create more usable land.
- A polder is a large tract of low-lying wetland or former sea floor partially or wholly encircled by dikes and drained mostly with pumps.
The land of the Netherlands, however, is affected by other variables unrelated to global warming. The sea walls, drainage canals, levees and dikes themselves have impacted the country. River deltas in general tend to subside, or sink, naturally, increasing the impact of a rise in sea level. The Netherlands’ engineering projects also have limited the ability of streams to naturally add new sediments to the deltas.
Acid Rain
Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.
As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects. Acid falling on a forest’s soil is also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency. Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the clouds blankets them. Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in Eastern Europe. It’s estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in Switzerland have been affected.
Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art because of its ability to corrode certain materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts with minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.
- Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution
- The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a byproduct of electric power generation and the burning of coal.
Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.
As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects. Acid falling on a forest’s soil is also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency. Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the clouds blankets them. Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in Eastern Europe. It’s estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in Switzerland have been affected.
Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art because of its ability to corrode certain materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts with minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.
Land Subsidence
- Land subsidence is a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth's surface owing to subsurface movement of earth materials.
Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of groundwater have been withdrawn from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts because the water is partly responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the rocks falls in on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too much because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small spot, like a sinkhole. That doesn't mean that subsidence is not a big event -- states like California, Texas, and Florida have suffered damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over the years.
Subsidence is a global problem and, in the United States, more than 17,000 square miles in 45 States, an area roughly the size of New Hampshire and Vermont combined, have been directly affected by subsidence. More than 80 percent of the identified subsidence in the Nation has occurred because of exploitation of underground water , and the increasing development of land and water resources threatens to exacerbate existing land-subsidence problems and initiate new ones. In many areas of the arid Southwest, and in more humid areas underlain by soluble rocks such as limestone, gypsum, or salt, land subsidence is an often-overlooked environmental consequence of our land- and water-use practices.
Compaction of soils in some aquifer systems can accompany excessive groundwater pumping and it is by far the single largest cause of subsidence. Excessive pumping of such aquifer systems has resulted in permanent subsidence and related ground failures. In some systems, when large amounts of water are pumped, the subsoil compacts, thus reducing in size and number the open pore spaces in the soil the previously held water. This can result in a permanent reduction in the total storage capacity of the aquifer system.
Terrace Farming
- Terraces are made using low walls of Earth up the side of the hills, these allow the farmers to make flat areas for planting their crops
- Terrace farming is commonly found through Asia, and is used when the terrain is particularly hilly or steep.
The terraces are used in several ways, but they are mostly used for allowing the soil to remain in place and water to flow down the hill through natural gravity. The terraces are extremely efficient at conserving scarce water from rain or irrigation canals. Water can then be moved and channeled through the terrace set up using a system of small openings and gates to allow different areas to be dry or wet at any one time. The stone retaining walls heat up during the day and slowly release that heat to the soil as temperatures plunge at night, keeping sensitive plant roots warm during the sometimes frosty nights and expanding the growing season.
While terraced farming is a great way to make use out of your surroundings, there are some negative effects that can happen if the terraces are not maintained. Terracing requires huge inputs of labor to construct and maintain, and when not properly maintained, the effects can be catastrophic. Unmaintained terraces can lead to mudslides, the creation of deep gulleys and increased soil erosion, particularly in sandy soils or on extremely steep terrains.
Terraces have been used for farming for centuries in many different areas of the world. The Inca carved terraces into the steep Andes mountains of Chile, and these farming techniques are still in use today.Terraces are also often seen in the rice-growing areas of sour-east Asia, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam and so on. The Indonesian island of Bali is particularly well-known for large areas of rice terraces, but at higher altitudes the crops in the terraces will be replaced by different crops as rice cannot grow too high.
Aquaculture
- Marine aquaculture refers to the culturing of species that live in the ocean.
- Freshwater aquaculture produces species that are native to rivers, lakes, and streams.
Aquaculture, also known as fish or shellfish farming, refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of water environments including ponds, rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Researchers and aquaculture producers are "farming" all kinds of freshwater and marine species of fish, shellfish, and plants. Aquaculture produces food fish, sport fish, bait fish, ornamental fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae, sea vegetables, and fish eggs.
Aquaculture includes the production of seafood from hatchery fish and shellfish which are grown to market size in ponds, tanks, cages, or raceways. Stock restoration or "enhancement" is a form of aquaculture in which hatchery fish and shellfish are released into the wild to rebuild wild populations or coastal habitats such as oyster reefs. Aquaculture also includes the production of ornamental fish for the aquarium trade, and growing plant species used in a range of food, pharmaceutical, nutritional, and biotechnology products.
Aquaculture in the United States contributes to seafood supply, supports commercial fisheries, restores habitat and at-risk species, and maintains economic activity in coastal communities and at working waterfronts in every coastal state. Aquaculture also supports commercial and recreational fisheries. While the worldwide amount of wild-caught seafood has stayed the same year to year, there is a dramatic increase in the amount raised through aquaculture.
Eutrophication
- Eutrophication stimulates an explosive growth of algae (algal blooms) that depletes the water of oxygen when algae die and are eaten by bacteria.
Nutrient pollution is the single largest pollution problem affecting coastal waters of the United States. Most excess nutrients come from discharges of sewage treatment plants and septic tanks, stormwater runoff from overfertilized lawns, golf courses and agricultural fields. Over 60 percent of the coastal rivers and bays in the United States are moderately to severely affected by nutrient pollution.
Despite dramatic improvements in water quality as a result of large-scale efforts to reduce nutrient enrichment, eutrophication continues to be the leading cause of water pollution for many freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems and is a rapidly growing problem in the developing world. Given that the demand for freshwater resources is expected to increase dramatically, protecting diminishing water resources has become one of the most pressing environmental issues and will likely become more complicated as climate change, invasive species, and pollution further degrade water quality and quantity.